Auditing of Educational Institutions

INTRODUCTION;2 DEFINITIONS3 Auditing3 Financial statements:4 Educational institutions4 FINANCIAL AUDITING:5 Objectives of auditing:5 Primary objects6 Subsidiary objects:6 General Principles Governing an Audit of Financial Statements6 Qualities of an auditor:7 Types of audit:7 Statutory audits:7 Private audits7 Internal audits:7 Required procedures:8 Auditors report:9 AUDITING OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS9 INTRODUCTION:9 Background of auditing educational institutions:9 Reasons and purposes of auditing school accounts:10 Expectations of the schools’ accounts auditor:12 Types of auditing13 Internal auditing14 External auditing:15 Records and books of accounts for external auditing. 17 Audit report21 CONCLUSION22 Reference23 INTRODUCTION Since schools are public agencies, their raising and spending of money must be reviewed on a yearly and needs basis. This paper reviews auditing in educational institutions and specifically Kenyan Educational institutions. The paper starts by giving detailed definitions of key words which are essential in the discussion of auditing. However, a background to financial auditing is first discussed to give an insight on the same. Areas of general auditing covered include: need of auditing, objectives and general principles of auditing, qualities of an auditor, required procedures and the auditor’s report. Having discussed auditing in general, the paper goes further to discuss auditing in educational institutions and starts by giving a background to the same, reasons and purposes of auditing school accounts, expectations of the school accounts auditor, types of school auditing, records and books of accounts used for auditing and finally the audit report. DEFINITIONS Auditing The Auditing Practices Board (APB), (2002), defines audit of financial statements as an exercise whose objective is to enable auditors to express an opinion whether the financial statements give a true and fair (or equivalent) of the entity’s affairs at the periods and of its profit or loss or income and expenditure for the period then ended and have been properly prepared in accordance with the applicable reporting framework. for example relevant legislation and applicable accounting standards ) or where statutory or other specific requirements prescribe the term present fairly. Okumbe (1998), states that auditing deals with the investigation of the financial records of an educational organization in order to ascertain the objectivity and accuracy of the financial statements. Okumbe further suggest that auditing is an activity which appraises the accuracy and completeness of the accounting system applied by the educational organization. According to Milli champ. A (2006), auditing is an activity carried on by the auditors when he verifies accounting data determines the accuracy and the reliability of accounting statements and reports and then reports upon his efforts. Millichamp asserts that, it is an activity carried out by an independent person with the aim of reporting on the truth and fairness of financial statement. Wango (2007) defines auditing as the assessment of accounting records and procedures of a business or government unit by a trained accountant for the purpose of verifying the accuracy and ompleteness of records. Wango illustrates that auditors generally want to determine whether the correct procedures are followed and whether embezzlement or other illegal activity occurred. Nyongesa (2007) defines auditing as a systematic method of determining whether or not school funds and property have been used in a proper way. According to him, audits are proposals of school finances and property practices and records. Auditing therefor e is a detailed study of the control of books and accounts such as subsidiary records. The study determines legality, accuracy, accounting and application of how school funds for example, have been utilized. This paper will however adopt a definition given in a UNESCO report of 2007, thus, auditing refers to a process whereby all accounts of the school are examined and evaluated in detail by a competent auditor in order to determine and report on the financial standing of the school for the period under review. Financial statements: According to business dictionary. om:financial management refers to the planning, directing ,monitoring organizing and controlling of monetary resources of an organization Educational institutions Thesaurus defines educational institutions as organizations dedicated to education Financial Auditing: According to Millichamp (2006), the problem which has always existed when managers’ report to owners is: can the owners believe the financial report. This is because the report may contain errors, not disclose fraud, be inadvertently misle ading, be deliberately misleading, fail to disclose relevant information or fail to conform to regulations. Millichamp suggests that the solution to this problem of credibility in reports and accounts lies in appointing an independent person called an auditor to investigate the report and report on his findings. In general, published accounts are required to confirm to the accounting standards. Part of the auditors’ duties is to assess whether or not the financial statements he is auditing do comply in general and in detail with the accounting standards. Auditing is carried out by accountants in public practice. Accountancy is a profession and professions have certain characteristics including an ethical code and rules of conduct. Objectives of auditing: The auditor should be an independent person who is appointed to investigate the organization, its records and the financial statements prepared from them and thus form an opinion on the accuracy and correctness of financial statements. The primary objective of an audit is to enable the auditor to say that these accounts show a true and fair view or of course to say that they don’t. The main objects of an audit according to Millichamp (2006) can thus be categorized as below: Primary objects To produce a report by the auditor of his opinion of the truth and fairness of financial statements, so that any person reading and using the m can have belief in them. The auditor gives his opinion on those financial statements taken as a whole and thereby to produce reasonable assurance that the financial statements give a true and fair view (where relevant) and have been prepared in accordance with the relevant accounting or other requirements. Subsidiary objects: * To detect errors and fraud. * To prevent errors and fraud by deterrent and moral effect of the audit. To provide a spin-off effects General Principles Governing an Audit of Financial Statements The financial statements audited under international standards iv are the balance sheets, income statements and cash flow statements VI and the notes thereto. The first International Standard on Auditing, ISA 1 (Subject matter Number 200) vii, discusses the principles governing an audit of financial statements: a) ISA 200 (1) st ates that an auditor could comply with the Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants issued by IFAC. ) ISA 200 further states that the auditor should conduct an audit in accordance with International Standards on Auditing. c) The term â€Å"scope of an audit† refers to the audit procedures deemed necessary in the circumstances to achieve the objective of the audit. d) An audit in accordance with ISAs is designed to provide reasonable assurance. e) There are certain inherent limitations in an audit that affect the auditor’s ability to detect material misstatements. f) The audit of the financial statements does not relieve management of its responsibilities. Qualities of an auditor: Auditors being professionals are expected to uphold certain qualities. Some of these qualities according to Millichamp (2006) include: independence, competence, and integrity. Types of audit: Statutory audits: These are audits carried out because the law requires them Private audits These are conducted by independent auditors because the owners desire it and not because the law requires it. Internal audits: These are conducted by an employee of an organization or an outside contractor into any aspects of its affairs. It is an independent appraisal function established by the management of an organization for the review of the internal control system as a service to the organization. Required procedures: Before commencing any professional work, an accountant /auditor should agree in writing the precise scope and nature of work to be undertaken. This is done through the medium of an engagement letter. The letter serves the following purposes: * Defining clearly the extent of the auditor’s responsibilities. Minimizing misunderstanding between the auditor and the client. * Confirming in writing verbal arrangement. * Confirming acceptance by the audit of his engagement. * Informing and educating the client. On agreement the auditor observes the following procedures: * Background research * Preparation of the audit plan * Accounting system review substantive testing * Analytical review techniques * Analytical review of financial statements * Preparation and signing of report. Auditors report: At the end of his report when the auditor has examined the organization, its records and its financial statements, the auditor produces a report addressed to the owners in which he expresses his opinion of the truth and fairness and sometimes other aspects of the financial statements. The auditor in his report says that in his opinion, the financial statements show a true and fair view. The reader or user will know from his knowledge of audit whether or not to rely on the auditors’ opinion. If the auditor is known to be independent, honest and competent then his opinion will be relied AUDITING OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS INTRODUCTION: Having looked at financial auditing, this section of the paper will now focus on auditing of educational institutions. A detailed background of auditing in educational institutions will be discussed, reasons and purpose, expectations of the school accounts auditor, types of auditing which can/are practiced, records and books of accounts used for audit purposes in schools and finally the schools’ audit report. Background of auditing educational institutions: According to Rajeev (2005), education has turned into a big business now. Apart from the government controlled schools, colleges, institutes and universities , the entry of private sector into these areas have provided not only new opportunities to the chartered accountants who are in service ,but have created an altogether new challenge to the chartered accountant who are in practice. Education institutions are very much different from other business organizations and the process of audit of institutions is also very different, from that of other business enterprises. Wango(2007),suggests that financial management is the process of planning and utilization of school funds in an efficient and effective manner and in accordance with regulations and procedures. Wango says that financial management is an indispensable part of school management. Prudent financial management is usually precondition of a good school since the way schools funds are managed largely determined the overall school performance. The school management and the head teacher are responsible for planning, controlling monitoring school finances. The head teacher is the accounting officer in the school. The head teacher and the accountants (school bursar) must be very vigil on school accounts. Given that Primary and Secondary schools are receiving a lot of money from the government, there is certainly going to be greater pressure to be open and transparent. School funds will be more closely monitored and stakeholders including parents will demand even more efficient use of school finances. Reasons and purposes of auditing school accounts: Okumbe (1998), points out that the purpose of auditing is not to uncover mismanagement or embezzlement of the funds. According to him the major objectives however include: i) To determine whether the financial statement made by an educational organization are accurate in both calculations of figures and in applications of the recommended accounting guidelines. i) To determine whether educational organization uses procedures which comply with legal provisions, policies, and procedures stipulated by the ministry of education or the relevant body. i) To identify any operational problems in the accounting procedures used by the educational organization so as to provide remedial recommendations for improvement. iii) To enable the auditor to form a opinion on the accounting of the financial statement prepared by the school for a given period. Nyongesa (2007) notes that the major purpose of auditing is to protect school property and funds as well as the administrators involved in handling s chool property and funds. He further goes ahead to state that, head teachers are solely responsible for the proper use of school property and money. They therefore need to be protected against any improper use of school money and property by themselves or any other personnel in the school. Formerly, the emphasis on school auditing was placed on the discovery of fraud and detection of errors (Knezevich, 1967). Those two functions are least emphasized in modern times because any auditing is viewed as a means of knowing how property are used in schools. According to Nyongesa, the main purpose of auditing in a school is to: * Protect any school official in charge of school property and funds. Show proper and improper use of property and funds. * Verify that all financial accounts have been accurately recorded. * Provide suggestions in improving the school financial system. * Review all the school operations within a fiscal period. According to a UNESCO report (2002), auditing school accounts is the final stage in the process of managing school funds. At the end of each financial or budget period, the school head has a statutory respo nsibility to prepare and present to school financial bodies an audited financial report. This should give a true and fare view of the financial position of the school. The report states that, in many countries, financial accountability is one of the major responsibilities of the school board of governors/directors and the school head. Government statutes usually include sections outlining the financial principles and practices which boards and heads must follow to achieve accountability for the funds they collect and receive to run their schools. The Ministry of Education also issues financial regulations from time to time whereby audited accounts of a given financial period must be submitted to facilitate financial decisions, for example a case of Kenya where there are grants and donations for the running of free education. Finally, auditing helps the head teachers to improve the schools accounting systems thus enhancing their skills in financial management and evaluates his or her performance. Expectations of the schools’ accounts auditor: Qualified auditors are the only ones authorized to examine and verify the books of accounts of any formal organization. They are skilled in the techniques of auditing and they are governed by international professional ethics. Because auditing of school accounts must be done with reasonable care and skill, the auditor must be professionally trained and qualified with an independent mental attitude about the school. He/she must have reputable and known personal qualities which would support his/her opinion about the schools’ financial statement. School boards of governors are corporate bodies and by state they are responsible for engaging auditors through the terms of a formal contract which is binding to both parties. The contract with the auditor must state clearly the tasks expected, the terms of payment and the date when the report must be completed and submitted to the board. The auditor should not have any vested interest in the school and the contract should be between him and the board but not with the school head. A school head teacher has a statutory responsibility to prepare and submit financial statements which give a true and fair view of the financial standing of the school. Types of auditing There are two types of audits operational in the Kenyan school system: internal audit and external audit. Both audits are used in institutions of higher learning, mostly the universities. The external audits are the only audit used in primary, secondary schools and the teacher training colleges. However, a report by UNESCO (2002), states that every educational organization must carry out the two types of auditing for accountability and credibility of their financial statements because they are public agencies. The inspectorate is charged with the responsibility of conducting the auditing process in schools and the teacher training colleges. An approved firm of accountants is charged with that auditing responsibility especially with the university accounts. As far as the inspectorate is concerned, books of accounts should be in the Provincial Director of Education (PDEs’) office by or before 31st January of the ensuing year for auditing. After being audited, these books should be submitted to the Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Education (Nyongesa, 2007:133). The types of auditing are thus discussed below: Internal auditing According to Okumbe (1998), there should be an officer whose duty is to perform the tasks of internal auditing. This is because internal auditing enables an organization to appraise the effectiveness of its financial management techniques and control. However, Okumbe asserts that educational managers are expected to be conversant with auditing techniques within the organization so that he/she may help in detecting financial management flaws before it is too late to alleviate them. Nevertheless, some schools are small entities where internal auditing may not be necessary, especially where the accounts staff is competent. In any case, the school head is directly involved to authorizing and approving expenses and signing cheques and the finance committee of the board may inspect and carry out internal control of the funds. UNESCO report (2008), defines internal auditing as a management activity and a service intended to ensure regular and frequent checking on a schools’ financial transactions and records. According to the report, an internal auditor is normally an employee of the school e. g. a deputy head whose main role is to supervise the accounts staff to ensure efficiency in the day to day management of the school finances. Robert (1995), points out that the requirement of multiple signatories for the approval of purchase order constitutes an internal audit of purchasing. The accounting or book keeping department may also perform an audit on the general ledger prior to closing the financial statements at the end of each month. It has been noted that internal auditing is to ensure regular and frequent checking of the financial transactions of the school. A schedule for internal auditing should include and outline the objectives, procedures to be followed the frequency and the methods of communicating or reporting the information to management. An internal audit report should point out areas of weakness and strength in the accounts records and books and draw the attention of management to any irregularities in the transactions. Information from internal auditing must be reliable complete and available on call to enable the head and the board to make quick decisions where necessary. External auditing: Robert et al (1995), defines an external audit as an objective systematic review of resources and operation followed by a written or oral report of findings. According to Robert et al, there are three basic types of external audits namely: the financial compliance audits which address the fairness of presentation of basic financial management in conformity with Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP);secondly there is the Program compliance audit which is a review of a local agency (LEA) adherence to the educational and financial requirements of specific finding source and lastly the third type is a performance audit which addresses the economy and efficiency of LEAs. This examines the LEAs internal controls for weaknesses which would expose possible mismanagement or fraud. Okumbe (1998), states that external auditing is performed by agencies from outside the educational organization. The main aim being to ascertain that the organization has complied with the stipulated financial control mechanisms. According to a UNESCO report external auditing is an independent report on the financial performance of the school, in accordance with the terms of the contract agreed with the school. The focus of external auditing is on establishing the truth and fairness of the accounts. It gives added credibility to unaudited financial statements and records of the schools financial transactions and confirms their compliance to the statutes. In most secondary schools in Kenya, an external audit is carried out by the quality and standards officers who are specialized in accounting principles. According to Nyongesa (2007), there are four other audits which the school administrator; particularly the head teacher should understand and use. These are: a)Special audits-these are carried out in case of suspicion ,error, or fraud for example; when the head teacher suspects the school bursar of committing a fraud regarding school fees ,they inform the board of governors which then hires an external auditor to carry out special audit to establish the truth. b) Pre-audits –these occur before budgetary transactions commence and are used to guard against fraudulent use of school funds by head teachers . they protect schools official from the embarrassment of unwise spending of school money and wrongful use of school property. ) Continuous audits-occur throughout the year to improve educational program. These should be carried out to ensure that the funds are spent wisely and for the purpose for which they were budgeted for. d) Post audits –carried out immediately the fiscal year to allow for enough time for the budgeting next fiscal year. They help the head teacher to know how much they spent in the previous year and how much less or more they need for each school item (activity) during the coming fiscal year. Finally, the functions of internal auditing and external auditing may seem to overlap but it should be noted that the former is a management measure to ensure the daily efficiency in managing school funds, while the latter evaluates the adherence to the accepted principles, practices and statutory provisions of management in financial transactions. However, when an internal auditing is properly done, it will cut down on the cost of the external auditing (UNESCO report, 2002) Records and books of accounts for external auditing. After signing the contract, the school head must submit to the auditor all accounts; records and books to facilitate his/her work. All the relevant evidence must also be included to enable the auditor to draw conclusions on the state of school accounts. The head teacher should be ready to give oral evidence and to allow any inspection of assets which the auditor may consider necessary because auditors are in highly privileged position and have statutory rights to demand such information and explanations as they consider necessary for the purpose of auditing. Rajeev, 2005) A UNESCO report says that the auditor’s report is reached by a process of examining and evaluating all documents or evidence pertaining to the financial transactions of the school. In a school, books of accounts are usually written and kept by the bursar. A primary record in the school s financial statements is the general ledger. This consists of figures and records from various journals which give the daily records of financial transactions in the; a school cash book where the daily cash income and expenditure is recorded. A petty cash voucher may also be used along with the cash book. Almost all assets, liabilities, income and expenses clear through the cash account and the auditors will spend time carefully examining the cash book to establish the validity and reliability of other financial statements. Rajeev (2005), states that the following areas are also crucial in conducting the audit of any educational institution: 1) The constitution:- * Study the trust deed or any other similar document to ascertain the constitution of the educational institution. Make a note of provisions contained in the regulations which may affect accounts. 2) Minute’s books:- Peruse the minutes of the meeting of the governing body making a note of the resolutions affecting accounts. Ensure that the decisions taken have been duly complied with e. g. sanctioning of expenditures, operation of bank accounts, and rejection of any financial proposal. 3) Fees from students: – * Check the names entered in the students fee register for each month on term, with the respective clas s register, showing names of students on rolls and testing amount of fees charged. * See that the system of internal check ensures that demands against the students are properly raised. Verify fees received by comparing counterfoils of receipts given with entries in the cash book. * Ascertain whether fees paid in advance have been duly considered under the sanction of appropriate authority. * Verify admission fees with admission slips signed by the principal of the institution and confirming that the amount has been credited to a capital fund or separate account if decided so by the governing body * Ascertain whether hostel dues were recovered before students’ accounts were closed and their deposit of caution money refunded. Report any old arrears on account of fees, dormitory rent, etc to the governing body or management committee. 4) Other income:- * Verify any government or local body grant with the memo of grant. * Ascertain the reasons if any expenses have been disallowe d for purpose of -grant. * Vouch the income from endowments and legacies as well as interest and dividends from investment. * Verify the securities in respect of investments held. * Verify rental income from landed property with rent receipt and agreement expenditure. ) Expenditure :- * Ascertain the operation of internal control system over various heads of expenditure * Vouch various expenditure items, noting abnormal or heavy items, if any obtain suitable explanations for significant items of expenditure. 6) Taxation:- * Verify whether the institution enjoys tax exemptions under income tax act * Examine whether the conditions subject to which exemption has been granted have been followed. 7) General:- Verify the fixed assets and ensure the adequate depreciation is provided. * Verify the capital fund and other liabilities. * Note that the investments representing endowment funds for prizes are kept separate and any income in excess of prizes has been accumulated and invested along with the corpus * Confirm that caution money and other deposits paid by the students on admission have been shown as liability in the balance sheet and not transferred to revenue, unless they are not refundable. Ensure that separate statement of accounts have been prepared as regards scholarships ,game fund ,hostel fund ,library fund and P. E,etc. * Verify whether the form and manner of presentation of financial information conforms to relevant accounting standards if any and other applicable legal requirements. * Obtain appropriate representation and certificates from the competent person appointed by governing by or management committee in respect of various aspects covered during the course of audit. Audit report According to Allan (2006), at the end of his audit when he has examined the schools records and its financial statements, the auditor produces a report addressed to the board of governors and other stake holders of the school in which he expresses his opinion of the truth and fairness and sometimes other aspects of the financial statements. An audit report should be clear, constructive and concise. The auditor will point in writing to the authorities; * Any weaknesses /strength in the accounting system of the school. Deficiencies in the financial control system * Inadequacies in the financial policies and practices * Non-compliance with accounting standards and legislation The auditors’ opinion can be unqualified, qualified or adverse depending on the state of the books of accounts and any other evidence the auditor may have examined and evaluated. An unqualified opinion is positive and satisfactory and a qualified reservation about the state of the schools accounts. Conclusi on School funds are the property of the government and citizens. They are meant to be used for the purpose of providing better education for children. There is need for public funds to be protected from any kind of misuse such as fraud embezzlement or theft. In order to ensure that school funds are secure, the head teacher should advise the school committee members or the board of governors to carry out periodic audits. It is unwise to keep postponing audits in a school. Prolonged audits are likely to be very expensive. To protect the funds and ensure effective operation of the school, the head teachers should also protect school funds by providing efficient guidelines to teachers and other school officers dealing with school funds According to Robert (2002), when auditing process determines that money was managed legally, and appropriately, then the school should have the tools to use funds effectively, efficiently and productively. In essence, it is very important for a school head to ensure that there are enough funds for running the school. An appropriate budget identifying all school activities to be prepared and approved must be adopted and properly utilized. For proper accounting and recording, all purchases must be receipted and payments mad kept. References: Barasa, J. M. Nyongesa, (2007), Educational Organization and Management. The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation Enterprise Road, Industrial Area, Nairobi- Kenya Everret, Robert E. Lows, Raymond and Johnson, Donald R; (1995) Financial Management Accounting for School Administration. Reston, VA: Association of School Business Officials International. Gupta, R (2005), How to conduct audit of educational institutions. Issue of chartered accountant Practice Journal. 1st Issue. Hayes S. Rick et al(2002),Principles of auditing . An international perspective . Millichamp A. H. (2006) Auditing . 8th Edition. Thomson Learning, Holborn House, pg 50-51 Bedford Rowi London WCIR4LR. Okumbe, J. A (1998) Educational management. Theory and Practice. Nairobi University Press. Nairobi University, Kenya. Omondi, J. (nd) Management of Finance and Property in Secondary Schools. Handbook Manual for Bursars. Public School Budgeting, Accounting and Auditing, Answers. com. Retrieved on 15/10/2011,1. 22p. m. UNESCO Report (2002), Auditing of School Account Books. Resource Materials for School Heads in Africa. Module Five Unit Six. Wango G. (2007) School Administration and Management. Quality Assurance and Standards in Schools. JKF. Nairobi, Kenya.

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Starbucks in China - Coursework Example How this coffee shop at the neighborhood did invade and changed the lifestyle of many It is a sort of colonization. I call it Starbuckzation. Starbucks has been around since 1971. According to Starbucks Coffee Company (2007) history, it started by selling roasted coffee beans in Seattle's Pike Place Market bearing the name of Starbucks Coffee, Tea and Spices. It was in 1981 when this coffee shop caught the attention of plastics salesman Howard Schultz (Wilson, 2005); Schultz is now the Chairman of Starbucks Coffee Company. But it was never easy for him to turn the business into an international giant that it is now. In 1982, Schultz was hired as Starbucks' head of marketing; shortly thereafter he was sent to Italy for an international house ware show It is where he got the idea of turning Starbucks into an espresso bar (Wilson, 2005). But things did not immediately come his way. The opportunity came in 1987 when Starbucks was up for sale; Schultz was able to raise the money, remade the establishment, and started history in the coffee industry. Today, Starbucks has 6,281 company-operated stores and 3,533 licensed stores in 50 states of US plus the District of Colombia It has also established coffee houses in 39 countries outside US (Starbucks, 2007). It is not quite surprising though that Starbucks is a success in the United States of America since a cupful of steaming coffee has almost become a necessity to every American. What is more amazing is its success in Asia particularly in China that can be considered, by far, as Starbucks' largest market outside North America. Traditionally, Chinese are fond with tea, which they say has healthy benefits. How come that a tea-drinking country could easily shift to coffee Starbucks started its operation in China in the late '90s. The company began with a store in Taiwan in March 1998, spread in Mainland China at the China World Trade Building in Beijing in January 1999, then in Hong Kong in May 2000, and Macau in August 2002; to date, there are almost 500 stores all over China (Starbucks China, 2007). Has China really fell under Starbuckzation It could be so. However, Starbucks' phenomenal success in China has not been copied in Australia. Since its first store was established at Sydney's CBD in July 2000, Starbucks has set-up only 50 stores in Sydney, Brisbane, the Gold Coast, the Sunshine Coast, Canberra, and Melbourne today (Starbucks Australia, 2007). It could be attributed to a number of cafes in Australia. Geographical and social settings also contribute to this aspect. 1. Efficiency Among the keys to attain success in any field is efficiency. In Starbucks' case, it is the coffee house's capability to deliver the goods regardless of its customers' race or creed. There is a cup of flavorful coffee that will suit the discriminating taste buds of everyone. It has a blend from various regions; coffees are blended depending on the flavors that characterize a certain country. There is Colombia Nario Supremo, Guatemala Antiqua, Arabian Mocha Sanani, Komodo Dragon Blend, and Sumatra, to name a few. Apart from coffee, Starbucks also offer tasty cakes and pastries. There is also a variety of

Summary of an article , Standing alone in mecca, by asra q.nomani Essay

Summary of an article , Standing alone in mecca, by asra q.nomani - Essay Example The sense of emancipation and the exploring the actual sense of Islam is vigorous. The paper discusses her experiences and highlights the difference between the written facts in the holy book of Islam i.e. Quran and the harsh realityThe name of Asra Q. Nomani bears particular significance within the feminist struggle and emancipation of woman’s right especially in the Muslim world of today. Born in Bombay, India and brought up in West Virginia, America an outright liberal journalist and a former Wall Street Journal reporter, Nomani tries to find out the atrocities attached with the Muslims in the Western world and blames that it is due to unscrupulous activities of some extremists of her own religion that have attached the notion of violence and terrorism with the Muslim religion as a whole and still makes a major section of the Muslim women , a piece of subordination to the male society. In her desperate creation of the book, â€Å"Standing Alone: An American Woman's Struggl e for the Soul of Islam" reveals her bitter experiences about the pilgrimage to Mecca and exhibits her utmost efforts in reclaiming the right of the Muslim women in the 21st Century (Nomani, 2012). ... According to the sharia law of Pakistan, two women were regarded as witness. At this instance she states that, â€Å"Neither relenting nor opposing the edict, I had my grandmother and my aunt serve as one witness† (Nomani, 2005, p. 195).In her locality in America she also experienced the stereotypes of her religion. One of the converts in the newly opened mosque organized private swimming for the Muslim women on Sunday nights in an indoor pool taping the newspapers to the windows. But the puritanical gossipmongers sliced her efforts. There was also an organization of an entertainment with an innocent four person ride at the Valley’s Worlds of Fun but it was protested by the Protestants as â€Å"Rock and Roll Cage† (Nomani, 2005, p.196) as they thought that it would be promoting improper western dance. Thus it can be said that in America her experience of treatment with the Muslim women were quite harsh. Adversities faced in the trip In the initial phase of the tr ip, she receives permission in making the trip but faces criticisms in going to Saudi Arabia as she was an unwed mother. Nomani became pregnant when was in Pakistan and decided in raising the child with her parents in West Virginia. Ultimately she got the sponsor from her father and family members. Even at the pilgrimage in Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem she did not received proper welcome from the people. As for instance, the board president who was an Egyptian American with PhD degree yelled at her stating that, â€Å"Sister, take the back entrance!† (Nomani, 2005, p.197). The tone was not all good and she experienced this same behavior from the men and women in Mecca as well as in Jerusalem. The man didn’t even greeted her with

Supreme Court Case Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Supreme Court Case - Research Paper Example The administrative action taken in this case, which consisted of five steps, is described, after which a stand is made that the court’s action had no effect on any perceived arbitrariness in the administrative agency’s decision. This writer’s opinion was rendered on the appropriateness of the court’s decision, and foreseen future implications on administrative actions are briefly described. On the case of Goldberg v Kelly 1. Offer a brief summary/historical overview of the circumstances in the case, the stakeholders, and the outcome sought by the plaintiff. In this case, the appellants were New York state officials and the Commissioner of Social Services, New York City. The appellees are New York City residents who were receiving financial aid under federally supported Aid to Families with Dependent Children program, and the general Home Relief program of New York State (397 U.S. 256). Plaintiff-appellees allege that their benefits either have been or were about to be terminated by officials without prior notice and hearing. They claim in effect, denial of their constitutional right to be afforded the due process of law, for which they sought the restoration of their welfare benefits pending results of evidentiary hearing where they could present their case (397 U.S. 256-257). Upon conclusion of the administrative procedure and remedies during which time plaintiffs’ welfare benefits were terminated, action was brought by the aggrieved party in the District Court for the Southern District of New York. Defendants argued that pursuant to regulation, a pre-termination review was conducted at the end of which it was decided that termination of benefits was warranted. At this juncture, the benefits were halted, although plaintiffs were afforded the option of requesting for a post-termination â€Å"fair hearing† during which they may appear personally before the decision-maker, adduce their evidence and confront and cross-exam ine the witnesses against them. The rationale behind the discontinuance of welfare benefits after the administrative review and summary adjudication prior to the â€Å"fair hearing† was purportedly to protect the interests of the New York taxpayer, in case the hearing finds the discontinuance to be meritorious (397 U.S. 265). The district court ruled in favor of plaintiffs, that in light of the constitutional mandate, a pre-termination evidentiary hearing is required in order to satisfy the due process requisite under the law (397 U.S. 256-257). The District Court rejected the argument by welfare officials that their conduct of a post-termination â€Å"fair hearing† as well as an informal pre-termination review had adequately complied with the law. The decision of the District Court was withheld on appeal. 2. Explain how the case qualified for judicial review in regards to the ripeness, standing, the exhaustion of administrative remedies, and primary jurisdiction as th ey apply. The doctrine of ripeness is concerned with whether at the time a judicial action is brought, the facts have sufficiently developed such that the injury has occurred or is likely to occur, instead of being remote or contingent. A claim is ripe if the injury upon

Nanoprobes used to Fight Breast Cancer Tumors Essay

Nanoprobes used to Fight Breast Cancer Tumors - Essay Example The prevalence rates are quite similar throughout the world with the United States leading in the number of incidences and China showing the least. Historically, Eastern Europe and the Far East have had low rates of breast cancer which however, have begun to rise rapidly (Babb et al, 2001). The age related incidence is also very significant in this disease as, the age group most at risk are women over 50 years old (80% of cases) and the highest number of cases is in this 50-69 age group (Office for National Statistics, London, 2008). The treatment for breast cancer is dependent on various factors like, the type of breast cancer, the size and histopathology of the tumor, the stage of the disease and the presence or absence of certain biomarkers. The general health of the patient is also a major factor in determining the mode of treatment. The options range from unilateral to bilateral mastectomies, lumpectomy, with additional chemotherapy or radiation therapy or chemotherapy and radiation on their own. Tamoxifen, an endocrine targeting drug which acts by interfering with the activity of estrogen, a female hormone is the largest selling drug for breast cancer. Tamoxifen has been used for more than 30 years to treat breast cancer in women and this too, has side effects that cannot be overlooked and in most cases is usually an additional therapeutic drug. All these treatments are painful in different degrees both physically and emotionally. The recovery time is long, especially in older patients and the nature of th e disease, that it could reoccur, is an emotionally exhausting variable to live with. The invasive and painful features of the currently available treatment options and the high incidences, makes this a very important disease in which to fund research. The awareness, on the rising numbers and the need to address the methods of diagnosis and treatment has been heeded by many countries and organizations. Technological advances in one area serendipitously affect applications in other areas. Nanotechnology is one such science that has influenced developments in many spheres of science, technology and medicine. Nanotechnology involves the creation of practical substances, devices, and systems which can be used in different applications on an incredibly small scale. The size and scale we are referring to here is in nanometers and hence the name nanotechnology. Nanotechnology works between 1 and 100 nanometers, a nanometer being, one billionth of a meter. To put this in proportion we can compare this to being the same as about ten times the diameter of a hydrogen atom. Advances in this technology have had applications in treatment options for many diseases including cancer. Introduction Significance of the Issue Breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the leading cause of cancer death in women (http://www.cancer.gov/statistics/). Breast cancer incidences and statistics are calculated and processed by gender, age, geographic variation, trends over time and prevalence. Breast cancer is the most common cancer in the United Kingdom although the incidence in men is minute compared to other cancers. In 2005 there were 45,947 new cases of breast cancer that were diagnosed, of these 45,660 (over 99%) were in women and 287 (less than 1%) in men. As mentioned earlier the lifetime risk of being diagnosed with

Candidiasis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Candidiasis - Essay Example in its thriving conditions that can be triggered by dampness, impaired defenses and heat provide a productive environment that triggers their growth (Goehring, 2008). Other risk factors include restrictive clothing, poor hygiene, inflammatory diseases, suppression of immunity and altered flora by antibiotic administration (Kourkoumpetis et al., 2010) Different types of candida exist, but majorities are caused by the Candida albicans species. The case presented by the patient is Candidiasis (moniliasis), which occurs on the skin, but commonly attacks intertriginous areas (body parts where two skin areas touch or rub together), genitals, oral mucosa and cuticles (Kauffman, 2011). Symptoms of skin infections include intense itching, red growing skin rash on skin folds and pimple-like infections of hair follicles. Treatment for intertriginous candidiasis starts with a diagnosis by clinical appearance and examination of a sample of skin for testing (Kauffman, 2011). Intertriginous infection is commonly treated with drying agents such as burrow solution that oozes lesions and topical or oral antifungals. For extensive infections, a mixture of oral and topical antifungals can be used for better relief. Patients are also advised to ensure they take preventive measures that aim at keeping the fungal environment stable. In conclusion, fungal infections especially among women are mostly confused with sexually transmitted diseases. One ought to differentiate between the two by establishing that such infections thrive in warm, moist and sweaty conditions that are presented in the event friction occurs when skin parts rub or touch each other. Kourkoumpetis, T., Manolakaki, D., Velmahos, G., Chang, Y., Alam, B., De Moya, M., Sailhamer, A. and Mylonakis, E. (2010).  "Candida infection and colonization among non-trauma emergency surgery patients".  Virulence  1  (5):

Alcohol and Performance Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Alcohol and Performance - Research Paper Example When we look back on history, it is easy to gather that alcohol had been used socially for many diverse purposes like providing courage in battles, calming feuds, sealing pacts and celebration festivals (Batista et al., 33-42). As of today, alcoholic beverages, used by many to relax, act as a social â€Å"ice-breaker† or, in other words, â€Å"bridge-builder†, is a way to alter one’s mood by decreasing one’s reserve. While its use is prevalent and acceptable in our society, it should not come as a surprise that problems arise in the use of alcohol and the performance of safety-related activities, such as driving an automobile or flying an aircraft. These problems are made worse by an exaggerated confidence and a tendency to forget that flying an aircraft is a highly demanding cognitive and psychomotor task that takes place in an inhospitable, trying environment where pilots are exposed to various stressors (Batista et al., 33-42). In general the effects of alcohol consumptions on the human body are detrimental. The first fact to mention is that pharmacologically ethanol can be relegated to anesthetic drugs. The most sensitive to it are the CNS cells, especially the cells of the cerebral cortex, influencing which it arouses alcoholic excitement associated with the inhibitory process decreasing (Van Reen, 137). Then also excitative processes are decreasing, followed by inhibition of medulla oblongata and spinal cord that leads to the respiratory center suppression. If not used for medical purpose it is harmful for health being consumed even in small amounts. Thus, alcohol is sedative, somewhat hypnotic and extremely addicting drug (Van Reen, 137). It quickly impairs the situation assessment and causes the behavior that can easily contribute to unexpected emergency, or worse, lead to an accident. The process of ethanol circulation needs to be elaborated to explain its adverse effects. Thuswise, alcohol is rapidly absorbed from the stomach and small intestine, and

Information communication technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Information communication technology - Essay Example The use of the electronic mails has enabled people to keep in touch from all corners of the world. For instance, a software designer working on a project of the company can cooperate with team members who are situated in different locations. They can communicate through videoconferencing and various groupware programs soft wares. This work configuration is referred to as teleworking. This teleworking has been famous for the past years. It was predicted to gain high adopted but this has not been the case because organizations are not prepared fully for it. This has disempowered employees in many ways. However, teleworking has caused both positive and negative effects which must be studied carefully. In a networked business setup, workers can access all the information they need from the powerful PCs of the company. The presence of Wide web’s opens up the enterprises to the world thus creating more opportunities on their services. The Emergence of the internet as a communication channel has led to the growth of e-business and e-commerce. However, it has been a major issue since a few business enterprise and organization thrive as a result of this change in technology. Employees of many organizations lack a voice in decision making and sharing their thoughts through inventions. The key driver to the success of any business is by using Information Technology in supporting the staff through team works. This step will be a huge milestone since it will give them an opportunity to dream and come up with varieties of inventions (Davenport, 2005 p.51). The rate at which Digital networks is transforming workplace is incredible. The networked business entities have created a virtual business environment where by employees can now work from home. Work groups are distributed around the entire globe in almost all the fields of works. Their convergence is achieved through hosting meetings over the internet through videos and audios, regardless of their location (Davenpo rt, 2005 p.56). The advancement of these efforts has enabled them to share thoughts, goals and common interests of their respective fields of professions. This virtual environment has proven to be a positive impact to businesses since it enhances flexibility of work and duties. Organizations must shun the old and outdated models which they usually engaged in. The tendency of employees converging at the central place of work is boring since a few numbers of employees can keep up with that model today (Regan & O’Connor, 2002 p.8). Teleworking has become realistic today, enabled by ICT through mobile technology making staff members to continuously work from their homes. Studies and research works carried out reported that, regardless of ICT opening this option to an immense range of individuals, there is a much smaller percentage of those who practice teleworking. For instance in Europe, only seven percent of employees work from home on a regular basis. Recently, reports from Au stralia indicate that the numbers might shoot. Forty percent of the respondents confessed that they carried their assignments to their homes for completion. Conversely, that findings maintained there is still a huge percentage of workers who never do this, approximated to be sixty percent. The evidence in these researches points out that few people utilizes this golden opportunity of working from their homes. Telecommuting has benefit both for individuals, the organization for which one is working for and the society at large. Telecommuting allows an individual to effectively balance family demands and affairs and work. A researcher called Gajendran argues that, telecommuting minimizes job verses family feuds due to its positive effects on autonomy. From the

Improving Study Habits Essay Example for Free

Improving Study Habits Essay â€Å"The greatest time saver is being organized. Establish routines that go like clockwork.† Maximizing time makes an individual productive. Personal time management is organizing and managing according to personal priorities, to get where one wants to go. Those who use this technique are the highest achievers in all walks of life. The interesting and essential step in beginning to manage time more effectively is to identify how time is being spent, because only through examining, one can begin to set priorities, eliminate time barriers and aids to better time management. In the course of Bachelor of Science in Psychology, students need to learn many skills that are needed in practicing the actual profession. Psychology students have so many academic requirements to prioritize, but they also have extra-curricular that are important as well, and they always need to cope with time pressure. College is an entirely different situation than high school. Classes consist of far fewer grades, but they are worth it when you are done. Do not tell yourself, Ill read the assignment later, because often times you merely end up cramming right before the test; research indicates that cramming is not the best (nor is it the worst) method of studying. At first, different factors can affect the academic performance of a students in order to achieve success, going through the steps are necessary. It should provide time for students to review activities and prevent too many errors that results to unaccomplished tasks or tasks that are accomplished, but after several attempts to do so. It reduces avoidance and welcomes other opportunities that could help in preparing for other tasks. This study will contribute to the perception of the future psychology students in prioritizing the academic activities and requirements in terms of importance and urgency. The researchers conducted a survey regarding the said topic at Centro Escolar University among the second year psychology students. The purpose of this study is to identify the factors affecting the study habits and the effects to academic performance on psychology students’ particularly in the second year level. Habits (or wonts) are routines of behavior that are repeated regularly and tend to occur subconsciously or A habit, from the standpoint of psychology, is a more or less fixed way of thinking, willing, or feeling acquired through previous repetition of a mental experience. As behaviors are repeated in a consistent context, there is an incremental increase in the link between the context and the action. This increases the automaticity of the behavior in that context. Features of an automatic behavior are all or some of: efficiency, lack of awareness, unintentionally, and uncontrollability. And a bad habit is an undesirable behavior pattern. Anyone interested in getting better results, becoming more productive and ultimately more successful should probably take an honest look at the problem of procrastination. Most people think procrastination is just an issue that involves putting things off that can be done later without much of a penalty. But if procrastination will become your habit especially in your study what would be the effect of it in your academic performances? Statement of the problem. 1. What are the bad habits/behavior/attitude toward the respondent’s subjects? Ans. Gagawin pa yang sentence. Lack of interest in the subject area, Unable to set priorities (extra curricular activities, entertainment, etc.), Lack of prerequisites for success in the current subject area, Unstable home life ability to concentrate, lack of interest or motivation to succeed, procrastinating, habitual lateness, overextension, Inability to Prioritize, Negative Mindset and Fear of Failure 2. Does the negative attitudes and habits of psychology students affect their academic performances? 3. The reasons why they act/behave that way. Gagamitan naten to ng theories ha :†) at d pa to tapos. Lack of Focus, Family problems, social lives (including texting, IMing, etc.), outside distractions (phone, music, TV),

Pestel Analysis Of The Auto Ancillary Industry Economics Essay

Pestel Analysis Of The Auto Ancillary Industry Economics Essay Auto ancillary industry is an important segment of the economy in any country. The Indian auto industry has the potential to emerge as one of the largest in the world. Presently, India is The largest two wheeler manufacturer in the world. The largest three wheeler market in the world. Second largest two wheeler market in the world. The fourth largest commercial vehicle market in the world. Auto ancillary company comprises of OEM (original equipment manufacturers). Replacement Market. The automotive sector in India contributes to 5% of the nations GDP. This envisages the Auto ancillary sector output reaching a level of $145 billion accounting for more than 10% of the GDP by 2016. PESTEL ANALYSIS There are many factors Consists of internal environment and external environment will affect the decisions of the managers of any organisation. This analysis is essential for all organization before beginning its marketing process. 3 Investments in Industry Foreign Investments: India enjoys a cost advantage with respect to casting and forging as manufacturing costs in India are 25 to 30 per cent lower than their western counterparts. Seeing the growing popularity of India in the automotive component sector, the Investment Commission has set a target of attracting foreign investment worth US$ 5 billion for the next seven years to increase Indias share in the global auto components market from the existing 0.9 per cent to 2.5 per cent by 2015. Â · French tyre major, Michelin, has gained clearance from the Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB) for its US$ 2.26 billion Foreign direct investment (FDI) proposal to set up a manufacturing facility in Tamil Nadu. Â · Ford motor car is investing about 500$ million (Rs. 2,445 cores) to double capacity at its India plant, which will Become a strategic global production hub. Â · Bosch will continue to maintain its focus in India in spite of global recession as it is planning to set up manufacturing units for electronic control units (ECU) by investing US$ 26.76 million. Â · Renault in association with Nissan is to source USD 440 million worth of auto components from India in the coming years. Â · Italian car manufacturer Fiat is planning to increase sourcing to USD 330 million by 2010 and make India its global sourcing centre. Â · Volkswagen has set target to capture 8-10 percent of market share in the passenger car segment in India by 2014 with a series of launches and by doubling the number of dealers. Domestic Investments: The market is so large and diverse that a large number of players can be absorbed to accommodate buyer needs. The Sector not only has global players looking to invest and expand but leading domestic component companies are also pumping in huge sums into expanding operations. Indian tyre makers are rolling out investment plans worth US$ 1.24 billion, due to the rising popularity of radial tyres in the commercial vehicles segment. Some other investments include: Â · Hero Motors will invest US$ 19.84 million in association with Austrian firm BRP Power train for manufacturing Automotive transmissions in India. Â · Indian arm of Swedish automotive component maker SKF is investing US$ 30 million in new ball bearings manufacturing plant at Haridwar. Â · Mahindra Mahindra will invest approx US$ 400 million for setting up an integrated auto facility in Tiruvannamalai(Chennai). Â · an auto park is coming up near Hyderabad with investments worth over US$ 409.30 million from around 34 automotive ancillary units. A lower labour cost gives Indian auto ancillary companies an absolute cost advantage. ACMA numbers suggest that wage cost accounts for 3% to 15% of revenues for Indian manufacturers as compared to 20% to 40% for US players. Historically, Indias strength in exports lies in forgings, castings and plastics. But this is changing with more component manufactures investing in up gradation of technology in recent years. DEMAND SUPPLY SCENARIO Demand supply scenario Demand is generated from two segments namely OEMs and replacement markets. The volume of demand varies by product segments. The replacement market has 45 percent of its sales coming from unorganized players. There are no regulatory standards prevailing in the market. The level of technology is not sophisticated in the replacement market. The replacement market is a safe bet even when the economy faces a slowdown. Hence, it looked as an area of focus by major players of the auto component industry. The margins in the replacement market are generally higher because of low cost operations and counterfeit sales. Success in the organized market depends on the presence of an established brand name and a wide distribution network. Unorganized sector enjoys huge advantages over the organized players in terms of excise duty exemptions and lower overheads. The suppliers to OEMs have to adhere to requirements of high quality, tight delivery schedules and lower margins. Duty structure Regulations Government Policies: Reduction in excise duties in select segment of automobiles. Extension of tax holiday for 100 per cent export oriented units (EOU) until 2010-11 will benefit only players with established EOUs. Scheme to provide enhanced Export Credit and Guarantee Corporation (ECGC) cover at 95 per cent has been extended up to March 2010. This scheme will assist players to mitigate risk of payment defaults in the export market. Automatic approval for foreign equity investment up to 100 per cent of manufacture of automobiles and components is permitted. The automobile industry has been delicensed. There are no restraints on import of components. Free Trade Agreements: The growing number of FTAs (Free Trade Agreements) that are being signed by India with countries like Thailand, Singapore, China etc is likely to hurt the domestic players as they pay a relatively higher duty of around 25% as compared to 1%-10% being paid by its Asian counterparts. P- POLITICAL FACTOR Political factors the most important influence on the regulation of any business. How stable is the political environment Influence the Government Policy / Law on your business Governments position on Marketing Ethics Governments policy on the economy Governments view on culture under religion Political System is responsible for Law Making. Immediate laws which affect any business in general are Central Excise, Sales Tax/ VAT, Corporate Income Tax, Personal Income Tax Service Tax Controls if any on Marketing Strategies Like Marketing / Advertising of Cigarettes, Tobacco, Alcohol etc. Government Policies on the Economy Role of Public Sector Role of Private Sector Role of Joint Sector E- ECONOMIC FACTOR Inflation Employment Disposable income Business cycles Energy availability and cost Government outlook towards Bank Financing Interest Rates Exchange Rate Mechanism Incentives for Exports Restrictions for Imports Inflation Labour Policies Level of Government Spending Avenues for Capital Creation Size of the Capital Market Role of the Regulator Type of the Instruments Nature of the Investors Business Cycles Monsoon Energy Availability Cost of Energy S- SOCIO CULTURAL FACTOR Demographics Distribution of income Social mobility Lifestyle changes Consumerism Levels of education Demographics Distribution of Income Division of population Male / Female Age Group of the Population Disposable Family Income Disposable Income in the hands of the different Age Groups Education Level of the Age Groups Life Style Changes Consumerism Attitude to living Different Age Groups In tune with available disposable income Thrust on taking care of present needs by spending than saving for the future. Joint living and nuclear families Availability of various media tools Reach of the media to the population T- TECHNOLOGICAL FACTOR New discoveries and innovations Speed of technology transfer Rates of obsolescence Internet Advantage of Technology In terms of Economies of Scale E- ENVIRONMENTAL Environmental factors include the weather and climate change. Changes in temperature can impact on many industries including farming, tourism and insurance. With major climate changes occurring due to global warming and with greater environmental awareness this external factor is becoming a significant issue for firms to consider. The growing desire to protect the environment is having an impact on many industries such as the travel and transportation industries (for example, more taxes being placed on air travel and the success of hybrid cars) and the general move towards more environmentally friendly products and processes is affecting demand patterns and creating business opportunities L- LEGAL Discrimination law Consumer law Antitrust law Employment law Health and safety law CONCLUSION The auto ancillary industry is in the growth phase. As, the auto sector grows, the auto ancillary sector also grows. The industry is graduating towards the world-class technology by implementing TQM, TPM and Six-Sigma. India is becoming the global manufacturing hub for the small cars. European companies are expressing interest in India for sourcing their needs. Many other companies are looking to consolidate their global operations; India is now a supplier of high value and critical automobile components to global auto makers such as General Motors, Toyota, Ford and Volkswagen. India is expected to soon become a destination for sourcing the auto components. The Automotive Mission Plan 2016, states to increase the turnover to $145 billion and increase the export revenue to $35 million by 2016 and also to provide employment to 25 million people. With investments around US$ 15 billion slated for the sector over the next few years, the prospects for Indias auto market are bright. The results for the month of November and December2009 of the auto sector and the improved sentiments have already resulted in the BSE Auto Index outperforming the Sensex over the last one year. Therefore, the auto component industry is expected to grow in the near future. SUBMITTED BY: PANKAJ KUMAR YADAV

Growing demand for corporate governance reform

Growing demand for corporate governance reform 1. Introduction: In recent years, various researchers and scholars have argued that globalisation is leading to escalating convergence in the nature of corporate governance systems, across the corporate world. Hansmann and Kraakman (2000) states; a global compromise has now emerged that corporate managers and authorities must operate exclusively in the economic interests of shareholders, and as a result, all jurisdictions will inevitably move towards a newer model of corporate governance. However, before analyzing in-depth nuances of this concept, we should first try and understand this terminology. The definition of corporate governance can be traced back to the time of the formation of Cadbury Committee (C.C.) in the year 1992. This committee was appointed by the conservative government of the United Kingdom in this year, with obligations of addressing the financial aspects of corporate governance. The C.C. came into existence in response to a number of corporate scandals that radiate uncertainty o n the systems for controlling the ways corporations are run. This committee described Corporate Governance as the system by which companies are directed and controlled. Firstly, it is imperative to understand the significance that corporate governance as a concept holds to its beneficiaries. The importance of corporate governance lies in its contribution both to the concepts of business prosperity and to accountability. Its a strategic sword which has both its sides sharp enough, either to enhance the business efficiency or prove detrimental in the longer run. However, off-late the unprecedented inclination in the corporate scandals and failures around the world rather depicts a gloomy picture. Whilst progressing in this article I will illustrate various such corporate and financial fiascos and the reforms that have been put in place to avoid such massive failures around the corporate world. Besides, an in-depth analysis of the objectives and obstacles associated with corporate global reform measures would also be put forth. 2. Discussion: 2.1 Understanding Corporate Governance Reforms and its Implications. A corporate governance dilemma occurs, at the most basic level, whenever an outside investor desires to implement control differently from the manager in charge of the organization. Disseminated ownership amplifies the problem by giving rise to differences of interest between the various corporate stakeholders and by producing a collective action problem among shareholders  [1]  . More often, an elementary predicament of corporate governance surfaces from an overview that: regulation of large shareholder involvement may provide better security to small shareholders, but such policies may escalate managerial discretion and scope for abuse, (Becht, Bolton and Roell, 2003; Weiss, 1990). Since the year 2001, there has been renewed curiosity in the corporate governance practices of modern organizations, predominantly due to the high-profile disintegrations of a number of large corporations in the United States, such as  Enron Corporation  and  WorldCom. Such collapses have further led authorities to examine the necessity of improved and stronger corporate governance reform measures. Convergence among stakeholders is an essential part of the organization and economic stability, adhering to the corporate reform measures. According to OSullivan (1999: p.4), convergence arguments are emphasized by the neoclassical idea that the formation of liberal markets, which corporate governance reform is seen as facilitating, leads to finest economic outcomes and, in particular, greatest efficiency in terms of the distribution of scarce economic resources. Opinions such as these stiffen our beliefs of corporate governance measures being implemented. Besides, according to Rosse r (2003), corporate governance reform needs to be understood, not in terms of the extent to which it endorses development and effectiveness, but in terms of the extent to which it serves or harms particular political and social interests. It has become extremely essential for all the stakeholders to take into consideration various necessities of a deftly crafted governance reform. Efficient governance ensures that constituencies with a relevant interest in the companys business are completely taken into consideration. 2.2 Why Corporate Governance is an important issue? Claims that corporate governance systems are undergoing scrutiny have intensified in the wake of the Asian crisis and its aftermaths. Limitations in Asian corporate governance systems were widely seen as a primary cause of the Asian crisis and its consequences (Johnson et al, 2000; Dickinson Mullineux, 2001). With the advent of various colossal corporate crises all over the world, institutions such as The World Bank  [2]  have launched a range of schemes to promote corporate governance reform in developing and transition economies. Especially after what happened to corporations such as Lehman Brothers and Merrill Lynch, it has become all the more essential to adopt measure to streamline and conserve corporate governance policies. Corporate structures and governance agreements diverge widely from country to country. They are a product of the local economic and social environment. However, the fundamental issues of management accountability are more or less similar everywhere. The Cadbury Committee was a landmark in thinking on corporate governance. Cadburys suggestion were publicly endorsed in the United Kingdom and included in the listing regulations. The report also proved to be influential in many abroad countries and it has presented a benchmark against which standards of corporate governance in other markets are being measured. Traditionally, the corporate governance models have long been adopted from countries such as the US and the UK. With globalization, increasingly more corporations and governments have been driven towards the more efficient mode of conducting economic activities modelled after the Anglo-American system (Gourevitch, 2003; Jomo, 2004). According to Deakin et al (2005: p.1), The corpor ate governance atmosphere in the UK and the US is generally thought to be aggressive to the emergence of cooperative employment relations of the kind exemplified by labour-management partnerships. Becht, Bolton and Roell, (2003) have identified some factors which can be attributed to the prominence of corporate governance as a crucial issue. They state events such as, world-wide wave of privatization, growth of private savings and the takeover wave of the 1980s, which have put the limelight on corporate governance in developing markets. Besides, the colossal takeover wave in the US during the year 1980s and in Europe in the 1990s has further fuelled the public debate on corporate governance. 2.3 Understanding Corporate Governance Reform Policies and debates. Governance reform measure in the emerging and ripe markets has not progressed despite the willingness shown by the policymakers. According to a report developed by McKinsey Company, there are various ways in which a new life to a reform agenda can be given. Firstly they propose that governance reforms measures need to allocate more emphasis to driving transformation through institutional reforms of capital markets. Secondly, they stress upon the fact that family run business should have separate rights and must be recognized separately. Corporate governance reform continues to be a major concern for most of the emerging economies, throughout the world. International organizations have played a very active and determining role regarding this issue. The International Monetary Fund, The World Bank and The Organizations for Economic Cooperation have all been raising the profile of the corporate governance reforms across the corporate and financial sector. Despite their persistent effort s, corporate market standards in emerging markets are still far behind as compared to those of the US, UK and Europe, as stated by the McKinsey Report. It has been identified that there is a lack of progress and this topic or issue needs much more to be addressed towards itself. Typically, corporate governance practices are crafted to suit the needs of core shareholders of the organization. However, due to this very reason, there has been an increase in the amount and intensity of conflicts between all the stakeholders of the organizations. Problems: The state of Equity holders of corporations worldwide is gloomy, to say the least. According to a recent finding by a financial institution, stock markets are off 50% almost everywhere, banks and similar financial institutions are constantly under the threat of nationalization, dividends are being cut constantly, and to top it all there has been a constant upsurge in the number of frauds happening. According to Hadiz (1997), company employees have not been a key factor in corporate governance policy making, which in turn has given rise to the ever inclining ramshackle corporate governance. Other factors which contributed to this problem have been excessive risk taking by managers, failure on the part of the board and lack of knowledge of financial products. Besides, differences in ownership structure have two palpable consequences for corporate governance, as stated by Morck, Wolfenzon, and Yeung (2005). Apart from this, governing shareholders have both the enticement and the power to discipline management authority. On the other hand, concentrated ownership can create conditions for a new agency problem, because the interests of controlling and minority shareholders are not aligned. There have been a lot of failures in the corporate circuit, which have in a way fuelled the ongoing debate about the corporate governance reform measures. Some of these failures include undetected off-balance sheet loans to a controlling family, deliberate misleading of investors, insider trading and other such infamous events (Becht, Bolton and Roell, 2003). 2.4 Scandals in the corporate domain 2.4.1 Enron: This is the most popular of all the scams and is still being referred to after so many years. This scandal involved unrevealing of debts, increasing revenues and dishonesty. It resulted to the dislodgment of more than twenty thousand people, the death of Americas Most Innovative Company for many years in a row and the termination of one of the Big 5 global accounting firms (Andersen). 2.4.2 WorldCom: WorldCom is now known as MCI, Inc. is part of the Verizon Communications group, today. The company emerged from bankruptcy in the year 2003. The allegations included, inflating overall assets through capitalization of operating costs. The scam amount was estimated to be around, a whooping $11 billion. WorldComs intense bankruptcy filing comes second only to the Lehman Brothers which happened in the year 2008, in the history of such filings in the United States. 2.4.3 Qwest Communications: Its a telecommunications company offering services to 14 states in the in the economy of the US. In the year 2002, it was understood that the company engaged in counterfeit accounting practices which resulted in the inflation of its revenues generated from its deals with Enron Corporation. 2.4.4 Satyam Computer Services: This is a company based in India (now taken over by Mahindra Group). This is the most recent scandal in the financial domain, where the chairman overstated the cash and receivables by a total of over $100 million. Overall Satyams assets were inflated by about $1.85 billion. 2.5 Progress of efforts towards corporate governance reforms In spite of all that has been happening all over the world, pertaining to the fiascos of the financial infrastructures of corporations, there has been a lot of effort taken towards developing measures to curb such events. In the last couple of decades, three largest continental European countries (i.e. Germany, Italy and France) have enacted noteworthy corporate law reforms to strengthen the system of internal governance, empower shareholders better, improve revelation requirements and toughen public enforcement regulations (Enriques and Volpin, 2007). Special prominence is being placed on empowering minority shareholders of the organization, which can hugely contribute towards streamlining the way corporate governance functions. Apart from this, Ziegler (2000) points out that, a long era of political fight between workers and employers in places such as Germany has produced a corporate governance system in which employees in many companies are represented on supervisory boards and a re consequently able to play a role in company management. Also, economies across the world have now started to try and implement US corporate and securities and laws, pertaining to Americas well-developed legal framework. Besides researchers also suggest that, corporate governance framework should also ensure equitable treatment of all the shareholders, which also includes minority and foreign origin equity holders. As Nestor (2000) states, the board should be the main means for effective monitoring of the administration and for providing strategic supervision to the organization. There are many economies still, which are on the verge of falling down, due to the lack of corporate governance mechanisms. However, a proactive nature will have to be adopted by economies and its organizations to understand the nuances of corporate governance, so that they dont go bust all of a sudden. Some other measures include complementary legislations such as accounting law, commercial law, contract law, banking and dispute resolutions, and other such factors. Leuz and Verrecchia (2000) find evidence suggesting that firms cost of capital does decrease when they voluntarily switch to a reporting regime that requires gre ater disclosure. So there has been such a brawl adhering to the importance and significance of disclosure settings. Some of the key objectives of corporate governance reforms include maximizing economic value of the institutions, maximizing market value portfolios, furthering interests of other stakeholders of the organization, and alike. In a much talked about recent book, Roe (1994) Stiglitz (1975) disputes that politics rather than economic competency shaped American corporate law framework, at least at the Federal level. However, the reason why governance reforms come into existence is not the issue, the problem is whether they come forth or no. All the economies in the world must try and act towards the single most goal of increased efficiency in corporate governance. 2.5 Obstacles associated with global reform Although it is often stated that good corporate governance is mandatory, it is also a fact that one size does not fit all. So it becomes futile for economies where they try and imbibe governance measures based on other economies. There is a particular problem as noted by an author. The essence of Agency Problem (Shleifer and Vishny, 1997) is the separation of management and finance, or in simpler words ownership and control. This problem states that there is ideally a contract that financiers and managers sign, however they state trouble that most future contingencies are hard to describe and foresee which leads to mismatch in contract fulfilment. Apart from this, enforcement problems are a commonality. Most of the objectives and plans are not very simple to implement in a corporate structure. If one constituent stands out among the economies, it is that enforcement is an overruling concern. Most countries have significant substantive rules and regulation and disclosure requirements that cover most basic authority disclosures. However, without a market supervisor that can efficiently monitor for violations of law, the disclosure regime will not function One of the other major problems with the implementation of global reforms is the coordination of the parties involved in type of setting. More often than not, synchronization among the stakeholders becomes extremely complex, resulting in inefficient governance measures. Besides, a common global reform measure will not suffice the subjective needs of individual economies, as has already been explained above. 3. Conclusion: In summation, obligatory governance rules are necessary for two apex reasons; firstly, to conquer the collective action difficulty resulting from the dispersion among shareholders and secondly, to make certain that the interests of all applicable constituencies are put forth. Apart from this, it is essential on the part of the management to ensure that they cater to all the stakeholders of the organization. Not only will the management of various corporations, but also the government of the economies will have to stand in together to frame impeccable measure of corporate governance. All over the world, the regulatory framework for corporate governance reform measure has been substantially revised and strengthened, especially in the domains of financial reporting, minority shareholder rights and merger acquisitions (Rosser, 2003). Hermalin and Weisbach (2006) state that, economies across the world, in spite of a long era of studying regulation, has been slow, to provide a conceptual framework for their evaluation. They also mention that such framework requires treating governance organizations as endogenous, so it is easy to evaluate behavioural changes in reply to a new governance restraint. In the end a synchronized effort is required by the economies (on a macro scale) and by the organizations (on a micro scale), to sustain the measures of corporate governance for the longer run. Otherwise, the ongoing debate over the corporate governance reforms seems endless to me. Word Count 2,722

the kill artist :: essays research papers

Modern Middle East As the Middle East peace negotiations putter along, Daniel Silva's fictional book, The Kill Artist, could not be timelier. The story is a country-hopping cat-and-mouse game between two master assassins, one Palestinian, one Israeli. The story begins with the assassination of an Israeli ambassador in Paris, pulled off by Tariq, a master Palestinian assassin. Rumors of Tariq's plans to disrupt the ongoing peace talks reach Ari Shamron, head of the Mossad, Israel's intelligence agency. To find and kill Tariq, Shamron calls on ex-agent Gabriel Allon. The story mixes real people and places with fictional characters, providing an authentic feel for the storyline. The main theme is that a retired Israeli deep cover agent is brought out of retirement to face an old terrorist enemy. We learn that Allon was once one of the Mossad's most skilled assassins, tracking down and dispatching terrorist enemies of Israel. But the cost was horrendous. After his wife and child became two of Tariq's targets, he thrust himself into seclusion. Now that he is called back, he along with a female partner masquerading as a model, attempt to destroy the network of terror created by Tariq. More and more people are drawn into the action as time goes on including the American CIA and international businessmen. The terrorist Tariq always seems to be one step ahead of his opponents as they are bested time and time again. The scene changes from country to country as the two groups battle in an international arena, and we finally discover the true purpose of Ta riq's mission as the story arrives at its conclusion. Prior to becoming an author, Silva was a CNN executive producer and journalist who covered the Middle East. The background those experiences gave him only intensify the story, making for a convincing read. Silva's time as a journalist and CNN executive producer, covering everything from Washington politics to Middle East conflicts, is evidenced in The Kill Artist. Details gleaned from his research into the inner workings of the PLO and the cutthroat world of international art brings settings and characters alive, as each comes up against the complications of romance in the rich, and the murky underworld of the spy Although I liked the flow of action in this novel, a large number of superfluous characters are introduced in the first part of the book that never get fully fleshed out. Some of the characters more integral to the story also seemed a little shallow in their presentation.

Medical Technology and the Separation of Mans Body and Mind :: Exploratory Essays Research Papers

Medical Technology and the Separation of Man's Body and Mind The human was once whole in days before, but somewhere in his journey to the present, he lost himself. His mind and body have become separate identities that are unaware of each other's existence. Modern society reflects and encourages those thoughts very well, in my opinion. If a person believes his body is broken, ill, or in need of upgrading, he will seek out a medical professional specialized in the area of distress. Arriving to the specialist, the patient demands quick and efficient treatments that will cure/fix/upgrade the weakness in his body; unaware of the effects this may cause him mentally. Once cured of his weakness, the patient is in full working order and is sent back out into the world. That man's procedure for curing his weakness is the same road taken as someone who wishes to fix a toaster, for example. Would it then be safe to say that the man, subconsciously or consciously, considers his body to be more closely related to a tool rather than a part of himself? Unfor tunately, I believe this man is only one person out of an entire society that shares the same dissociation of body and mind. Why do people of modern society not associate themselves with their physical being, and where is this leading us? Moreover, how did this alienation of self come about? I will try to explain the latter of the two questions first, because I believe the answer can be explained through the evolution of medical technology. Traditionally, the main goal of medicine, as in the practice of, has been to cure diseases and prevent death, a classic human vs. nature scenario. To overcome death, which is a part of all the life cycles in the natural world, is virtually impossible. However, I am not here to argue the validity of man's fight with nature. I am trying to explain that the traditional medical community has but one enemy, and its success with that enemy has been limited. However, as time passes, the main goals of medicine start to become questionable. Daniel Callahan addresses some of modern medicines new goals in the fifth chapter of False Hopes. Describing the second great attraction of modern medicine, he writes: Here the aim is not the historical goal of avoiding disease and averting death, but of using the knowledge

How to Cheat Turnitin.com :: How to Cheat Turnitin.com

How to Cheat Turnitin.com I love procrastinating and then cheating and plagiarizing to get my essays and research papers complete on time! The only drawback is a website called turnitin.com Teachers use turnitin.com to check for plagiarism in submitted papers. This website often indicates plagiarism when all the writing is completely original. This is called a "false positive". Although a "false positive" has no negative impact at all on the owners of turnitin.com, it can destroy a students academic future! There are many videos on YouTube which explain how to eliminate the "false positives" produced by turnitin.com and thereby protect your reputation. It is unfortunate that these videos are found by searching for "Cheat Turnitin.com". In this case, "Cheat Turnitin.com" is certainly a misnomer, because it is Turnitin.com who is cheating the students with false positives which result in unfair accusations of plagiarism against students. To learn more about this topic, Google "Plagiarism False Accusations". How to Cheat Turnitin.com I love procrastinating and then cheating and plagiarizing to get my essays and research papers complete on time! The only drawback is a website called turnitin.com Teachers use turnitin.com to check for plagiarism in submitted papers. This website often indicates plagiarism when all the writing is completely original. This is called a "false positive". Although a "false positive" has no negative impact at all on the owners of turnitin.com, it can destroy a students academic future! There are many videos on YouTube which explain how to eliminate the "false positives" produced by turnitin.com and thereby protect your reputation. It is unfortunate that these videos are found by searching for "Cheat Turnitin.com". In this case, "Cheat Turnitin.com" is certainly a misnomer, because it is Turnitin.com who is cheating the students with false positives which result in unfair accusations of plagiarism against students. To learn more about this topic, Google "Plagiarism False Accusations". How to Cheat Turnitin.com I love procrastinating and then cheating and plagiarizing to get my essays and research papers complete on time! The only drawback is a website called turnitin.com Teachers use turnitin.com to check for plagiarism in submitted papers. This website often indicates plagiarism when all the writing is completely original. This is called a "false positive". Although a "false positive" has no negative impact at all on the owners of turnitin.com, it can destroy a students academic future! There are many videos on YouTube which explain how to eliminate the "false positives" produced by turnitin.

Odysseus: Man of Many Traits

Odysseus, the ruler of the island kingdom of Ithaca, was known by all for his cleverness and cunning, but what I noticed throughout my readings of Odysseus is that he is also shows some weaknesses at times. I will discuss examples of each of these prevalent traits throughout this essay. Throughout The Odyssey, Odysseus is driven to many wanderings during which he sees many wonders and endures many sufferings. Part of Homer’s theme in The Odyssey is the vicissitudes that have promoted Odysseus’s various character traits.He can be clever, as seen when he tricks Polyphemus by calling himself â€Å"nobody†. .. â€Å"So, you ask me the name I’m known by, Cyclops? / I will tell you. But you must give me a guest-gift / as you’ve promised. Nobody-that’s my name. Nobody- / so my mother and father call me, all my friends. † (9. 408-412) When Polyphemus is moaning and calling to his friends that he has been injured, they come running to his cave. They ask their fellow Cyclops what has happened and when he replies that he has been harmed by â€Å"nobody†, he receives no sympathy or help.He also is very clever when faced with the obstacle of the Sirens. Because he knows how dangerous it is to hear the song of the Sirens, he uses wax to plug the ears of his men, and leaves his own free to hear. He has his men tie him down tight to the ship and they manage to, yet again, escape the danger courtesy of Odysseus’ clever mind, and navigate to safety. Though Odysseus may not always have a handle on his pride and gloat, he is quite able to handle mind-over-matter situations like the one he is faced with on Helios’ island.When they come to the island, Odysseus demands that his crew will not eat the sacred livestock. Though they are trapped on the island for so long that their food supply dwindles and they begin to starve, Odysseus keeps his word and though he is slowly starving while surrounded by luscious herds, he never gives into the temptation of killing and eating the cattle. I find that to be an extremely strong and valued attribute, being able to resist temptation. Odysseus can be deceitful, as seen when he disguises himself as a beggar in Ithaca.He was warned by Agamemnon that he should no longer trust Penelope, and in turn he disguises himself in order to be able to spy on the suitors, and even on his own wife to understand the situation he is returning to after so many years. He learns who is still loyal to him, and how to deal with those who are not. The information he gains as a beggar in his own kingdom, helps him to formulate revenge without being detected. He possesses enduring strength, and continues to carry on, as seen in his refusal to give up during any of the struggles he is faced with on his journey back to his home island.Odysseus also displayed the strength of a hero through his epic journey. He was an indomitable man who was incapable of being subdued or overcome, an d possessed great amounts of physical strength. Most men would give in to the exhaustion of twenty years of obstacles, but not Odysseus. When sailing away from Calypso's island, he learned Poseidon would destroy his raft, so he swam â€Å"†¦adrift on the heaving swells two nights, two days- / quite lost†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (5. 429-430. ), an act that would have caused a lesser man to perish.Odysseus also displays his heroic strength when he returns to Ithaca. Upon arriving home and finding over a hundred suitors trying to steal his wife, he took his revenge. With the help of his son, he killed all the men, despite the fact that he was greatly outnumbered. The cleverness, deceitfulness, and enduring strength combine to help Odysseus survive throughout the tale. Odysseus also has an eye for wealth and adventure, traits that are common to all Greek heroes.He eagerly welcomes the gifts that the Phaeacians present him with unconcealed pleasure and enthusiasm; he is also pleased to see Pe nelope trick her suitors into presenting her with gifts. Just as Odysseus welcomes riches with wide arms, he also very often seeks out adventure. For example, he chooses to go to Polythemus' cave though he knows nothing of what may be inside and it proves to be a very dangerous decision. If we actually think about how things first began, it is a search for glory and riches that causes Odysseus to ever leave home to start with.Though he is a great hero, Odysseus exhibits many weaknesses during his journey home to Ithaca. Homer was easily able to integrate these weaknesses because all humans can relate to his problems and can learn from what Odysseus had to go through. We relate to the fact that no matter how strong and cunning and brave this hero may be, nobody is perfect. Odysseus’ excessive pride and overconfidence get him into trouble with the gods, Zeus and Poseidon. His impulsive ways get him into trouble with the Cyclops, Polythemus.He humiliates the Cyclops without thin king about the consequences. Odysseus calls from the boat to Polythemus, â€Å"So, Cyclops, no weak coward it was whose crew / you bent to devour there in your vaulted cave- / you with your brute force! Your filthy crimes / came down on your own head, you shameless cannibal, / daring to eat your guests in your own house- / so Zeus and the other gods have paid you back! † (9. 531-536. ) His taunts anger the Cyclops so much that he hurls rock toward the voice and nearly sends the group of men to their death.Though the taunting has obviously proved to be a bad idea, and though his crew has begged him not to say another word, Odysseus must have the last word. He continues, â€Å"Cyclops- / if any man on the face of the eart should ask you / who blinded you, shamed you so-say Odysseus, / raider of cities, he gouged out your eye, / Laertes’ son who makes his home in Ithaca! † (9. 558-562. ) This was a very dangerous bit of information to give out to Polythemus, who is the son of Poseidon. He did not think ahead as to what dangers Poseidon could throw at him throughout the rest of his journey.We should all learn from Odysseus’ mistake and think before we speak. We should overcome our impulsive ways and think of the consequences of our actions before we act so that we may avoid further problems which will divert us away from our life’s journey. Odysseus’ pride and confidence also get him into trouble with the god, Zeus. From the beginning only Poseidon had hated Odysseus, but as the story progresses, Odysseus angers not only Poseidon but also Zeus. The gods made his journey treacherous throughout the sea.They constantly pushed him away from Ithaca in order to make his trek that much longer and more difficult. We should learn to keep our confidence and pride in ourselves at a level to where we do not get distracted from our main objectives. Odysseus is able to overcome all of his weaknesses by receiving help from others around him. As we read his story and bond with this character, we learn from his mistakes and find ways to use his lessons for ourselves. We should learn to keep ourselves on task and to avoid life’s distractions from our main goal like Odysseus had done.He was distracted much longer than we ever would be, but was still always able to remember that his main destination was to successfully journey home to Ithaca. Odysseus’ weakness gets him into trouble multiple times. However, every weakness that appeared, he was able to overcome and eventually reach Ithaca. Through bravery, intelligence, and strength Odysseus fits the definition of an epic hero. He is able to accomplish all the things he did and make his way home to his wife, Penelope, with the help of his guardian Athena.This is what often times defines Odysseus as an epic hero. On the other hand, Odysseus’ character is different than many epic heroes. It is apparent that what matters most to him is not the heroic pr aise and reputation, but life in itself. He didn’t put great worry into what others would think of him later on; he focused on the fact that he wanted him and his men to get through every situation alive. And because of this, he did in fact make it through his journey successfully.?